Vectorization system comprising nanoparticles of homogenous size of at least one polymer and at least one positively charged polysaccharide and method for the preparation thereof

ABSTRACT

A vectorization and delivery system of therapeutic or diagnostic substances including (i) at least one polymer and (ii) at least one nontoxic positively charged polysaccharide, the nanoparticles having a substantially homogeneous distribution of size.

RELATED APPLICATION

This is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/FR03/01909,with an international filing date of Jun. 20, 2003 (WO 2004/000287,published Dec. 31, 2003), which is based on French Patent ApplicationNo. 02/07668, filed Jun. 20, 2002.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention pertains to the delivery of active principles usedespecially in the field of pharmaceuticals for preventive, curative ordiagnostic purposes. The invention more specifically relates to adelivery and vectorization system of substances of interest.

BACKGROUND

The development of new systems for the delivery or release of activeprinciples has as a first object the controlled delivery of an activeagent, especially a pharmacological agent, to its site of action at atherapeutically optimal rate and dosage (J. Kreuter, 1994). Theimprovement of the therapeutic index can be obtained by modulation ofthe distribution of the active principle in the organism. Theassociation of the active principle with the delivery system makespossible its specific delivery to the site of action or of itscontrolled release after targeting the site of action. The reduction inthe amount of active principle in the compartments in which its presenceis not desirable makes it possible to increase the efficacy of theactive principle, to reduce its toxic side effects and even to modify orrestore its activity.

One of the major issues of delivery is its application to molecularbiology and, most particularly, its application to active principlessuch as deoxyribonucleic acids (DNAs), oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs),peptides, proteins—all negatively charged. The molecular biology basesin genetic diseases makes it possible to modulate or replace adysfunctional gene. The development of gene therapy as routine inclinical practice is dependent on the possibility of repeatedadministration via the systemic route, the capacity to reach a targetand to effectively transfect cells in vivo (Felgner, 1990; Kabanov andAlakhov, 1993; Crook, 1995; Douglas and Curiel, 1995; Lasic andTempleton, 1996) as well as the possibility of fabricating vectors whichwill be capable of being adapted to an industrial scale. The techniquesof in vitro transfection used to date, such as electroporation andco-precipitation of DNA with calcium phosphate, are approaches theapplication of which in vivo would appear to be difficult (Fynan et al.,1993).

The systems for in vivo transfection take into account the naturalnegative charge of DNAs and ODNs. These are either viral systems (Morganand Anderson, 1993) or nonviral constructions such as cationic lipids(Ledley, 1994; Zelphati and Szoka, 1996). The viral vectors are veryeffective in terms of in vitro transfection, but they have limitationsin vivo because of their immunogenicity (Wilson et al., 1990; Douglasand Curiel, 1995; Verma and Somia, 1997). Among the nonviral vectors,the cationic lipids such as Transfectam (Behr et al., 1989) have goodtransfection properties, but their application in vivo is limited bytheir toxicity, the activation of the complement and their notabletropism for the liver and the lungs.

Since the studies carried out with poly(1-lysine) at the end of the1980s (Wu and Wu, 1987), many cationic polymers have been studied asnonviral transfection vectors. These vectors include polyethyleneimine(Boussif et al., 1995; Remy et al., 1998), polybrene (Mumper et al.,1996) and the dendrimers of poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) (Tang et al.,1996).

Until now, the efficacy of transfection with polymers is relatively lowand many of these cationic polymers have exhibited a relative toxicitywith low potentials of repeated administration via the intravenousroute. The polymers used directly with the active principles notably DNAare limited by their transfection efficacy and consume a large amount ofactive principle and thus require the use of a large amount of polymer,which is itself toxic. The colloidal systems used for the deliverynotably of genes in vivo use smaller amounts of polymer and activeprinciple.

The colloidal delivery systems of active principles comprise theliposomes, microemulsions, nanocapsules, nanospheres, microparticles andnanoparticles. Nanoparticles have advantages of targeting, modulation ofdistribution and flexibility of formulation and have a polymer structurewhich can be designed and implemented in a manner adapted to the goal.They have been found to be promising for obtaining a better therapeuticindex in the sense defined above because of their aptitude to ensure acontrolled release, a specific delivery to the site of action ortargeted delivery, enabling both an augmentation of the efficacy and areduction in the toxic side effects at the level of the other organs.

Among these, the poly(alkyl cyanoacrylates) described in EP-B-0 007 895(U.S. Pat. No. 4,329,332 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,489,055) and EP-B-0 064 967(U.S. Pat. No. 4,913,908) are particularly interesting because theirbioerosion takes place rapidly in relation to other biodegradablepolymers and unfolds over durations compatible with therapeutic anddiagnostic applications. The nanoparticles are colloidal vectors thediameter of which ranges between 10 nm and 1000 nm. These particles areformed by macromolecules in which the biologically active substance istrapped, encapsulated or adsorbed at the surface. Nanoparticles ornanospheres are described by Birrenbach and Speiser (1976) in terms ofnanopellets and nanocapsules and qualified by Kreuter and Speiser (1976)as adjuvants and delivery systems of active substances by Kreuter(1983).

With the goal of increasing the stability of the oligonucleotides, ofincreasing their penetration into the cells and avoiding nonspecificdistribution, the use of particular vectors, like nanoparticles, isconsidered to be one of the most promising approaches. However, theiruse has been limited by the toxicity of the substance used to affix theactive principle to the nanoparticle.

The polymer nanoparticles that have been subjected to the greatestamount of research are the polyisohexylcyanoacrylates (PIHCA). However,as nanoparticles having a negative surface charge, a cationic copolymer(diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) dextran) or a cationic hydrophobic detergent(cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB)) were combined withpolyalkylcyanoacrylates (PACA) to facilitate association of ODNs byformation of ion pairs on the nanoparticles. Thus, the ODNs wereeffectively associated with the PACA nanoparticles containing ahydrophobic cation such as CTAB (cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide,Chavany et al., 1992). Since CTAB has toxicity problems, Zobel et al.,1987 replaced the CTAB with DEAE dextran which was introduced into thepolymerization medium prior to formation of the nanospheres. DEAEdextran was also found to be toxic.

A desirable nanoparticle vector for delivery of active principles suchas DNAs, ODNs, peptides and proteins should be:

capable of forming a complex with the molecule of interest taking intoaccount its physicochemical characteristics and the substance selectedfor affixing the active principle must be adapted to the charge and thetoxicity data,

capable of protecting the active principle from degradation during itstransport in the circulating blood,

biocompatible (nontoxic, nonimmunogenic and preferably biodegradable),

capable of delivering the active principle to the level of the targettissue in sufficient quantity, and

capable of targeting specifically a cell type.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to a vectorization and delivery system oftherapeutic or diagnostic substances comprising (i) at least one polymerand (ii) at least one nontoxic positively charged polysaccharide, thenanoparticles having a substantially homogeneous distribution of size.

This invention also relates to a method for preparing nanoparticleshaving a substantially homogeneous distribution of size and includingpolymerization at an acid pH higher than 1 of monomers in the presenceof the positively charged polysaccharide to obtain a suspension ofnanoparticles.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Other advantages and characteristics of the invention will becomeapparent from the examples below concerning the preparation ofnanoparticles of the invention and their capacity to transportoligonucleotides, and in which reference will be made to the attacheddrawings in which:

FIG. 1 is a graph showing the toxicity of the different preparations onNIH 3T3 EWS-Fli1 cells;

FIG. 2 is a graph showing the toxicity of the different preparation onNIH 3T3 cells;

FIG. 3 is a graph showing the toxicity of the different preparations onIW 35 cells;

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the toxicity of the different preparations onCEM 4FX cells;

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the toxicity of chitosan 5 kDa and 5-10 kDananoparticles and CTAB nanoparticles on CEM4FX cells after 24 h ofincubation;

FIG. 6 is a graph showing the adsorption of oligodeoxynucleotideEF3008As on chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles and CTAB nanoparticles;

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the stability of the oligonucleotide EF3008AS;

FIG. 8 shows chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles with oligonucleotide 11 mer(D) and oligonucleotide 7 mer OPC (B) in CEM4FX cells;

FIG. 9 shows chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles with oligonucleotide 11 merFluo in IW 35 cells;

FIG. 10 shows chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles (A) and 5-10 kDananoparticles (B) with the oligonucleotide EFAS 30-mer;

FIG. 11 shows the penetration of the plasmid tagged with rhodamine uponin vitro transfection of NIH-3T3 EWS-Fli1 cells by plasmid-chitosannanoparticle complexes;

FIG. 12 shows the expression of β-gal in NIH3T3 EWS/Fli-1 cells graftedon nude mice after immunological tagging with anti-β-gal antibodies. (A)transfection with 10 μg of plasmid pCMVβ-gal, (B) transfection with 10μg of plasmid pCMVβ-gal associated with 60 μg of chitosan 5 kDananoparticles;

FIG. 13 shows the localization of oligonucleotide EF3008AS-FITCvectorized by chitosan <5 kDa nanoparticles (A) and chitosan 5-10 kDananoparticles (B) in NIH 3T3 EWS/Fli-1 cells after observation byconfocal microscopy;

FIG. 14 is a graph showing the intracellular localization ofoligonucleotide EF3008AS-FITC vectorized by chitosan <5 kDananoparticles (A) and chitosan 5-10 kDa nanoparticles (B) after scanninga field of the cells with the laser of the confocal microscope;

FIG. 15 is a graph showing the inhibition of tumor growth afterintratumoral administration: of PBS, chitosan 5 kDa oligodeoxynucleotideEF3008AS nanoparticles, chitosan 5 kDa oligodeoxynucleotide controlnanoparticles and oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS to irradiated nude micewhich had developed a subcutaneous form of Ewing's sarcoma;

FIG. 16 is a graph showing the inhibition of the tumor growth afterintravenous injection of chitosan 5 kDa oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS(ON AS/NP) nanoparticles, oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS (ON AS), controloligodeoxynucleotide (ON CON), control chitosan 5 kDaoligodeoxynucleotide nanoparticles (ON CON/NP), chitosan 5 kDananoparticles (NP) and NaCl to irradiated nude mice which had developeda subcutaneous form of Ewing's sarcoma;

FIG. 17 shows the detection of the expression of the GFP protein in thetumor by the immunohistochemical technique: A (section of the tumor), B(section of the tumor after intratumoral administration of antisensesiRNA), C (section of the tumor after intratumoral administration ofcontrol siRNA), D (section of the tumor after intratumoraladministration of the antisense siRNA vectorized by the chitosan 5 kDananoparticles), E (section of the tumor after intratumoraladministration of the control siRNA vectorized by the chitosan 5 kDananoparticles); and

FIG. 18 is a graph showing the detection of the inhibition of thesynthesis of the mRNA of the protein GFP by the Northern blot technique.The GFP mRNA was normalized by mRNA 28s.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This invention provides a vectorization and delivery system ofsubstances of therapeutic or diagnostic interest, of the typeconstituted of nanoparticles, characterized in that the nanoparticleshave a homogeneous size distribution and comprise (i) at least onepolymer and (ii) at least one nontoxic positively chargedpolysaccharide.

The substances of interest are incorporated or adsorbed at the level ofthe nanoparticles. The vectorization and delivery system is particularlysuitable for anionic substances of interest or those comprising ananionic region. The polymer is preferably a poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) inwhich the linear or branched alkyl group comprises from 1 to 12 carbonatoms.

The polysaccharide(s) entering into the composition of the nanoparticlesof the invention is(are) nontoxic, unlike the substances taught by theprior art such as CTAB or DEAE dextran.

Thus, the invention most particularly pertains to a positively chargedpolysaccharide which is linear. It is preferably a derivative of chitinand most preferably of chitosan or its derivatives as long as they arepositively charged.

Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature aftercellulose. The skeleton is composed of β1-4-glucosamine sugars with ahigh degree of N-acetylation. This structure is close to that ofcellulose, the difference being the replacement of the hydroxylfunctional group by an amino group (Roberts, 1992). These polycationicbiopolymers constitute the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects, butthey are also present in certain mushrooms (Roberts, 1992). Chitosan,the principal derivative of chitin, is usually obtained by alkalinedeacetylation. The two types of polymers (chitin and chitosan) aredifferentiated by their solubility or insolubility in a dilute acidsolution (Roberts, 1992).

Chitosan has been the object of extensive studies in the pharmaceuticaland biomedical fields because of its favorable biological propertiessuch as its nontoxicity (Knapczyk et al., 1984), its biocompatibility(Candy and Sharma, 1990; Hirano et al., 1991) and its biodegradability(Struszczyk et al., 1991). In the medical field, chitosan has beendescribed as possessing interesting pharmacological properties such asits cholesterol-reducing activity (Kobayashi et al., 1979), itscicatrizing properties (Balassa and Grove, 1972) and its antacid andantiulcer activities (Hillyard et al., 1964). Moreover, its polycationicnature confers on it the capacity to strongly associate itself withmammal cells thereby enabling potentialities of use for its hemostaticactivity (Fradet et al., 1986) and its spermicidal activity (Smith,1984).

The molecular weight of the polysaccharides used in the invention wasdetermined to obtain homogeneous nanoparticles of a size sufficientlysmall to facilitate their administration. Thus, these polysaccharides,and most particularly chitosan or its derivatives, have a molecular masslower than about 100,000 Da, preferably lower than about 30,000 Da.Chitosan of 5,000, 10,000 and 30,000 Da was synthesized in the examples.

An example of chitosan derivatives is PEGylated chitosan, i.e., chitosanto which was grafted polyethylene glycol or chitosan functionalized withfolic acid for targeting cancer cells.

The delivery and vectorization system makes it possible to modulate thedelivery of the substance of interest as a function of the amount ofpositively charged polysaccharide in the nanoparticles. This chargemodulation was impossible in the prior art because of the toxicity ofthe detergents like CTAB or the copolymers like DEAE dextran. Thus, theamount of polysaccharide comprises between about 0.1 and about 1% inrelation to the amount of polymer.

The nanoparticles of the invention can also comprise at least onecompound capable of complexing the substance of interest. This is, forexample, a compound described in FR 2 775 435. The compound capable ofcomplexing the active substance is advantageously a cyclicoligosaccharide, preferably a neutral or charged native cyclodextrinwhich is branched or polymerized or chemically modified. It can be acyclodextrin modified chemically by substitution of one or morehydroxypropyls by alkyl, aryl, arylalkyl or glycoside groups, or byesterification with alcohols or aliphatic acids.

The vectorization and delivery system is most particularly suitable foranionic substances of interest or substances comprising an anionicregion. Thus, it can be a question of substances of interest that arenot charged or are charged positively, but modified to confer intotality or in part a negative charge enabling their association withthe positively charged nanoparticles according to the invention. Thesubstance of interest is affixed on the nanoparticles in a covalent ornoncovalent manner.

Examples include, but are not limited to, DNA oroligodeoxyribonucleotides or oligoribonucleotides notably antisensesubstances or interfering RNA (siRNA) or peptides, polypeptides orproteins and chemical compounds. Nucleic acids are anionic substances,but certain peptides, polypeptides and proteins are also anionic orcomprise a negatively charged region. Examples of substances of interestcapable of being associated with the nanoparticles of the inventioninclude, but are not limited to, insulin, calcitonin and triptorelin atpH greater than their pHi.

The nanoparticles have a homogeneous diameter between about 10 and about300 nm as a function of the molecular weight of chitosan and theconcentration used. The nanoparticles can be prepared by emulsionpolymerization techniques (Couvreur et al., 1979) of the type describedin FR 2 775 435 as well as in the experimental part below.

The invention also relates to a method for the preparation of thesenanoparticles comprising polymerization at an acid pH greater than thatof one of the monomers in the presence of the positively chargedpolysaccharide.

The polysaccharide is preferably added at the beginning ofpolymerization and the acid pH is preferably greater than about 3.According to an especially preferred aspect, polymerization is performedin the presence of a polymerization retarder such as SO₂ orhydroquinone, which affixes on the OH groups of the aqueouspolymerization medium or the polysaccharide.

By means of the above process, a suspension of nanoparticles of polymerand polysaccharide is obtained, the positive charge of which isdependent on the amount of polysaccharide added. The amount ofpolysaccharide is advantageously between about 0.1 and about 1% inrelation to the weight of the suspension.

The cationic substance of interest can be added at any moment of theabove process. In fact, polymerization at an acid pH, but with a valuegreater than about 1 makes it possible to introduce even at thebeginning of the process substances of interest sensitive to excessivelyacid pH values. The amount of substance of interest is advantageouslybetween about 0.5 and about 50% in relation to the weight of thesuspension.

The following process can be cited as a specific example:

100 μl of polyisohexylcyanoacrylate containing 0 to 20,000 ppm of SO₂was added to a solution of citric acid (with a pH ranging from 1 to 5)containing 1% of nonionic surface-active agent, poloxamer 188, andoptionally 0.5% of cyclodextrin and containing 0.2% of chitosan of lowmolecular weight (5000 or 10,000 Da).

It should be remembered that the use of chitosan to obtain positivelycharged nanoparticles was already described in Yang S. C. et al., 2000.However, the process of the prior art is performed at a very acid pH(pH 1) of the polymerization medium at which the active principles arenot stable.

In this method, the pH of the polymerization medium is between about 2.5and about 5, at which the active principles are stable. Furthermore, themethod described by Yang S. C. et al. employs a chitosan of molecularweight higher than 30,000 Da. The use of chitosan of molecular weightgreater than 10,000 Da exhibits toxicity (Richardson S. C. W. et al.,1999). In contrast, the nanoparticles according to the present inventioncomprise chitosan of low molecular weight (5000 and 10,000 Da), whichmakes it possible to obtain nanoparticles having a mono-disperse sizedistribution and thus greater tolerance.

The method described by Yang S. C. et al. is limited by theconcentration of chitosan present in the polymerization medium becauseat a concentration of chitosan lower than 0.25% the resultantnanoparticles are unstable. This method produces stable nanoparticles atconcentrations of chitosan lower than 0.25%.

The vectorization and delivery system of a substance of interest can bein the form of a suspension of nanoparticles or in the form of alyophilizate of nanoparticles. It allow intra-venous, oral or localadministration without denaturing the substance of interest.

EXAMPLE I Comparison of Toxicity of Chitosan of Different MolecularWeights and CTAB on Different Cell Lines

1. Materials and Methods

The NIH 3T3 and NIH 3T3 EWS-Fli-1 (adherent cells) were sown on 6-wellplates at 100,000 cells per well in their culture medium withoutpuromycin and the IW35 cells (cells in suspension) in 12-well plates atthe rate of 750,000 cells per well. Other cells in suspension CEM 4FXwere also tested. They were sown at 10,000 cells per well in 96-wellplates.

For the first two cell types, the cells were sown 24 hours prior totheir transfection. The medium was then eliminated and 100 μl ofsolution of the complex to be tested was brought into contact with thecells in 900 μl of medium.

Different concentrations of CTAB and chitosan of various molecularweight were tested.

Two controls were used and corresponded to the cells in the culturemedium on the one hand and in the culture medium containing 100 μl ofNaCl 150 mM on the other hand. After 24 hours of incubation, themeasurements of cytotoxicity were performed by a test measuring theactivity of the mitochondrial dehydrogenase enzymes of the living cellsby oxidation of MTT (3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; SIGMA) in formazan. The amount of formazan producedis directly proportional to the number of metabolically active livecells. The cells were washed with PBS and 1 ml of the medium was added.The cells were then incubated at 37° C. with 100 μl of a solution of MTT(5 mg/ml in PBS) for 3 hours. 1 ml of a lysis solution (10% SDS, 10 mMTris) was then added to each well. The cells were incubated at 37° C.overnight. The medium was homogenized and the optical density was readat 560 nm (Dynatech MRX).

2. Results

The toxicity of the different preparations on the different cells (NIH3T3, NIH 3T3 EWS-Fli1, IW 35 and CEM 4FX) is shown as a function of theconcentration of positively charged molecules (FIGS. 1-4). For the NIH3T3 cells with and without EWS-Fli1(adherent cells) (FIGS. 1-2), therecan be seen a notable toxicity of CTAB compared to chitosan of 5 or 10kDa. Furthermore, chitosan 5 kDa is not toxic and stimulates thecellular viability.

For the cells in suspension (IW35 and CEM 4FX) (FIGS. 3 and 4), the twotypes of chitosan 5 and 10 kDa do not exhibit notable toxicity comparedto CTAB which exhibits elevated toxicity at low concentrations.

EXAMPLE II Formulation of Positively Charged Nanoparticles in thePresence of Chitosan of Different Molecular Weights

The nanoparticles were prepared by the emulsion polymerization technique(Couvreur et al., 1979). 100 ml of polyisohexylcyanoacrylate containingSO₂ (Monorex®) was added to a solution of citric acid diluted to pH=3containing 1% of nonionic surface-active agent, poloxamer 188,containing or not containing 0.5% cyclodextrin and containing 0.2%chitosan of low molecular weight (5,000 or 10,000 Da). The duration ofpolymerization was 6 hours. After polymerization, the size wasdetermined after dilution of the particles in MilliQ water and the zetapotential was determined after dilution of the particles in NaCl 1 mM.Table 1 below presents the size and the zeta potential of thenanoparticles in relation to the molecular weight of the chitosan. TABLE1 Diameter Standard Polydispersity Zeta (nm) deviation index potentialChitosan MW 58 16 0.025 +21 5 kDa nanoparticles Chitosan MW 60 15 0.065+22 5-10 kDa nanoparticles

The diameter of the particles does not vary as a function of themolecular weight of the chitosan. Irrespective of the MW of the chitosanused at the concentration of 0.2%, the resultant nanoparticles were verysmall and monodisperse as can be seen from the value of thepolydispersity index.

The zeta potential of these particles was positive and the charge wasindependent of the molecular weight of the chitosan.

EXAMPLE III Comparison of Toxicity of Nanoparticles Charged withChitosan and with CTAB

1. Materials and Methods

CEM 4FX cells in suspension were sown at the rate of 10,000 cells perwell in 96-well plates. Different concentrations of nanoparticlespossessing positive charges from addition of CTAB or chitosan 5 kDa and10 kDa were tested.

Two controls were used and corresponded to the cells in the culturemedium on the one hand and in the culture medium containing 100 μl ofNaCl 150 mM on the other hand. After 24 hours of incubation, themeasurements of cytotoxicity were performed by a test measuring theactivity of the mitochondrial dehydrogenase enzymes of the living cellsby oxidation of MTT in formazan. The amount of formazan produced isdirectly proportional to the number of metabolically active livingcells. The cells were washed with PBS and 1 ml of the medium was added.The cells were then incubated at 37° C. with 100 82 l of a solution ofMTT (5 mg/ml in PBS) for 3 hours. 1 ml of a lysis solution (10% SDS, 10mM Tris) was then added to each well. The cells were incubated at 37° C.overnight. The medium was homogenized and the optical density was readat 560 nm (Dynatech MRX).

2. Results

On the CEM 4FX cell line, the nanoparticles of chitosan 5 and 10 kDaonly exhibited toxicity starting at 10 μ/ml, whereas the nanoparticlescharged with CTAB were toxic beginning at 10 μ/ml (FIG. 5).

EXAMPLE IV Formulation of Nanoparticles Charged with Oligonucleotides

The oligonucleotides were negatively charged macromolecules capable ofinteracting with positively charged surfaces.

We studied the formation of complexes of the chitosan nanoparticles withthe antisense EF3008AS oligonucleotides.

The antisense oligonucleotides are nucleic sequences capable ofhybridizing selectively with target cell messenger RNAs to inhibit theirtranslation into protein. These oligonucleotides form double-strandregions locally with the target mRNA by interactions of the classicWatson-Crick type.

1. Materials and Methods

The mother solutions of nanoparticles (10 mg/ml) were diluted to thefinal concentration of 1 mg/ml in Tris-HCl buffer pH=7 at 10 mM in finalconcentration. The adsorption of the oligonucleotides on the chitosannanoparticles was performed in 150 mM of NaCl for 30 minutes at ambienttemperature after having vortexed the solutions for approximately 30seconds. The complexes were then incubated for 30 minutes at ambienttemperature.

The formation of CTAB-oligonucleotide nanoparticle complexes wasperformed in the presence of CTAB (at the level of 3 μmoles of CTAB per5 μg of nanoparticle) and oligonucleotides in 150 mM of NaCl. Theoligonucleotides were adsorbed on the CTAB nanoparticles at the end of 2hours under agitation at ambient temperature. The preparation of thecomplexes was performed in a final volume of 200 μl.

Different quantities of 30-mer oligonucleotides (EF3008AS) (20, 50, 100,125, 150 and 200 μg) were mixed with 100 μg of chitosan 5 kDananoparticles and chitosan 5-10 kDa nanoparticles.

The nanoparticles charged with oligonucleotides as well as theoligonucleotides alone were centrifuged at 35,000 rpm (Beckman OptimaL80, rotor TW50, 1) for 30 minutes at 4° C. The quantity ofoligonucleotide adsorbed on the nanoparticles was calculated bydetermining the amount of DNA released in the supernatants (FIG. 6).

2. Results

For the oligonucleotide/nanoparticle ratios of 0.2/1 and 0.5/1 there wasobtained an adsorption of close to 100% of EF3008AS antisenseoligonucleotides on the chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles. For the chitosan5-10 kDa nanoparticles, there was obtained an adsorption of 100% for theoligonucleotide/nanoparticle ratio of 0.2/1; the adsorption percentagedropped to 80% at the oligonucleotide/nanoparticle ratio of 0.5/1. Forthese two oligonucleotide/nanoparticle ratios (0.2/1 and 0.5/1) theadsorption of oligonucleotides on the CTAB nanoparticles reached amaximum of 10%. It is important to note that for anoligonucleotide/nanoparticle ratio of 1/1 there was obtained apercentage of oligonucleotide adsorption of 80% with the chitosan 5 kDananoparticles (FIG. 6).

EXAMPLE V Study of the Protection of the Oligodeoxynucleotides Adsorbedon the Nanoparticles

1. Materials and Methods

The integrity of the oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS alone and associatedwith chitosan nanoparticles was determined in 10% decomplementedneonatal calf serum. At different incubation times, samples of 15 μlwere collected, mixed with the same volume of a formamide/water (4/1)solution, 0.01% of bromophenol blue and 0.01% of xylene cyanol andfrozen at −20° C. The nanoparticles were degraded by NaOH at pH=12 for 2hours at 37° C. The oligodeoxynucleotides were then recovered by adouble extraction with phenol/chloro-form/isoamyl alcohol (25/24/1) andwere then precipitated in 10 volumes of acetone containing 2% of lithiumperchlorate for 30 minutes at −20° C.

The oligodeoxynucleotides were then taken up again with 5 ml offormamide/water (4/1) solution, 0.01% of bromophenol blue and 0.01% ofxylene cyanol, heated for 5 minutes at 95° C. then put in the freezer.They were analyzed on a denaturing gel at 20% of polyacrylamide, 7M ofurea and TBE 1×. The gel was scanned by a photoimager (Storm 840,Molecular Dynamics). The degradation of the oligodeoxynucleotides wasquantified by determining the ratio of the signal of the bandscorresponding to the intact oligodeoxynucleotides and the degradedoligodeoxynucleotides.

2. Results

FIG. 7 shows that there is a good protection of 30-meroligodeoxynucleotides by the chitosan nanoparticles.

EXAMPLE VI Transfection of Human Cells by Chitosan Nanoparticles Chargedwith Oligodeoxynucleotides

1. Materials and Methods

a. Preparation of the Cells

Human CEM4FX cells were used. 500,000 cells in suspension were sown in12-well plates (TPP, Suisse) in 850 μl of an RPMI medium containing 10%of fetal calf serum (FCS).

b. Transfection of the Cells

150 μl of the suspension of nanoparticles prepared above was broughtinto contact with the cells for 24 hours.

c. Fixation of the Cells

The cells were then fixed prior to performing a fluorescenceobservation. At the end of 24 hours of incubation of the cells in thepresence of the nanoparticles, 1 μg of propidium iodide was added toeach well which enabled recognition of the dead cells by staining themred.

The cells were then centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes. Thesupernatant was collected and the cells were washed once more with PBS.200 μl of PBS containing 4% of formaldehyde was then added and the cellswere left at ambient temperature for 30 minutes. The cells were thenwashed twice with PBS 0.1×. Another washing with sterile water was alsoperformed to terminate. 20 μl of polylysine was added at the end. Theobservation of the cells was performed with a microscope equipped with afilter at 480 nm.

2. Results

Each of the observations of the FIGS. 8, 9 and 10 was performed for thetwo types of oligonucleotides 7 bases and 11 bases.

The cells in the presence of chitosan 5 kDananoparticles-oligodeoxynucleotides were very fluorescent and notoxicity was visible. In the presence of the formulation chitosan 5 kDananoparticles-Cyd-oligodeoxynucleotides, they were also fluorescent butmultiple dead cells were visible.

The formulation chitosan 10 kDa nanoparticles-Cyd-oligodeoxynucleotidesalso presented good fluorescence but also a slightly higher toxicitythan the 5 kDa-Cyd-oligodeoxynucleotides nanoparticles. In the presenceof 30 kDa-Cyd-oligodeoxynucleotides nanoparticles the cells were alsovery fluorescent but the number of dead cells was even higher than inthe two preceding cases.

In the case of the cells incubated in the presence ofCTAB-Cyd-oligonucleotides, the fluorescence was weak and the toxicitywas very high. The complex CTAB-oligodeoxynucleotides did not exhibitany cellular fluorescence.

In the case of the cells incubated in the presence ofcytofectin-oligodeoxynucleotides no cellular fluorescence was observed.

EXAMPLE VII Transfection in Vitro of NIH-3T3 EWS-Fli1 Cells byPlasmid-Chitosan Nanoparticle Complexes

1. Materials and Methods

a. Plasmid Coupled to Rhodamine

10 μg of β-galactosidase plasmid was tagged with a red fluorophoreOregon Green 546 (ULYSIS® Nucleic Acid Labeling Kits, Molecular Probes).This fluorophore yields a red fluorescence (Ex/Em est 555/570).

1 μg of labeled plasmid and 3 μg of unlabeled plasmid were mixed withchitosan nanoparticles in 200 μl of NaCl at 15 μM and vortexed thenincubated for 30 minutes at ambient temperature. The adherent NIH-3T3EWS-Fli1 cells were sown in 6-well plates (TPP, Suisse) 24 hours priorto transfection so as to reach 70% confluence.

Thirty minutes prior to transfection, the cells were washed with 2 ml ofPBS 1×per well then 800 μl of DMEM containing 2% of FCS was added toeach well. The complexes (200 μl) were brought into contact with theNIH-33 EWS-Fli1 cells for 16 hours at 37° C. The images of thefluorescent cells are presented in the photograph (FIGS. 11B and 11D).

2. Results

Fluorescence of the cells was observed when they were coupled to thechitosan nanoparticles (FIGS. 11B and 11D).

EXAMPLE VIII Induction of the Expression in Vivo of β-Galactosidase bythe Plasmid pCMVβ-gal Vectorized by the Chitosan 5 kDa Nanoparticles

1. Materials and Methods

a. Treatment of the Animals

The EWS-Fli1 cells were obtained by transfection of NIH 3T3 cells withthe oncogene EWS-Fli1. They were then cultured. When the cells hadreached 70% confluence, they were put in suspension in PBS at theconcentration of 6.5·10⁶ cells/ml. The cells were then inoculated innude mice via the subcutaneous route at a rate of 1.3·10⁶ cells/mouse.Seven days after inoculation of the cells (the tumor had to be visibleto the naked eye), the animals were treated either with 100 μl ofchitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles (60 μg) associated with 10 μg of plasmidpCMVβ-gal or with 100 μl of plasmid pCMVβ-gal (10 μg). Twenty-four hoursafter the treatment, the tumors were collected for histological studyafter immersion in Glyo-Fixx (Shandon).

b. Detection of the Expression of GFP in the Tumor by theImmunohistochemistry Technique

The tumor fragments were poured into paraffin and labeled by a solutionof hematein-eosin-safranin. The protein β-gal was detected on a sectionof tumor fragment of 4 μm by an anti-β-gal antibody (Clontech) (1:30)and monitored by the Power Vision Histostaining kit (ImmunoVisionTechnology, CA) after counter-labeling; the samples were observed bymicroscope (Zeiss) associated with a CDD Camera Imaging System (Sony).

2. Results

β-gal activity after 24 hours was seen solely when the animals weretransfected with the plasmid pCMVβ-gal associated with the chitosan 5kDa nanoparticles (FIG. 12B) while no β-gal activity was seen when theanimals were transfected with the plasmid pCMVβ-gal alone (FIG. 12A).

EXAMPLE IX Intracellular Penetration of the AntisenseOligodeoxynucleotides Vectorized by the Chitosan 5 and 10 kDaNanoparticles in the NIH 3T3 EWS/Fli-1 Cells

b 1. Materials and Methods

The NIH 3T3 EWS/Fli-1 cells were sown 24 h prior to their transfectionin culture medium without puromycin in culture chambers mounted onplates (labtek® 4 wells, Nunc Inc.) at the rate of 100,000 cells perwell. The cells were rinsed with PBS and incubated for 24 h in 400 μl ofOPT1-MEM1 medium supplemented with 2.5% of FCS, 100 U/ml of penicillinand 100 μg/ml of streptomycin in the presence of the different chitosannanoparticle-oligodeoxy-nucleotides-FITC complexes in the mass ratios of5:1, 10:1 and 20:1. These complexes were prepared in NaCl 150 mM for afinal volume of 100 μl. Two controls were used corresponding on the onehand to the cells incubated with free oligodeoxynucleotides AS-FITC (1μg) and on the other hand to the cells incubated with 1 nmol offluorescein (Aldrich). The penetration of the oligodeoxynucleotidesAS-FITC into the cells was visualized by confocal microscopy using aLeica TCS NT device (Leica) mounted on an inverted Leica DM IRB/Emicroscope.

2. Results

No fluorescent cells were seen after their incubation with FITC aloneand the non-vectorized AS-FITC oligodeoxynucleotides. The images of FIG.13A and FIG. 13B show a field of cells incubated respectively with thecomplexes chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles: oligodeoxynucleotides AS-FITCand chitosan 10 kDa nanoparticles: oligodeoxynucleotides AS-FITC in theratio (5:1). They show that the fluorescence is dispersed in the cytosolwhen the oligodeoxynucleotides-FITC are vectorized by the chitosan 5 kDananoparticles and concentrated at the level of the nucleus in the caseof chitosan 10 kDa nanoparticles. The curves of FIGS. 14A and 14Bpresent the sum of the intensities of the fluorescence recorded in thedifferent planes Z of the cell. For a depth of 0 to 1 μm, thefluorescence is located at the level of the apical membrane in thecells. A depth of 8 to 9 μm corresponds to their basal membrane. Between1 to 8 μm, the fluorescence is localized at the intracellular level.These curves show that for both types of chitosan nanoparticles at thechitosan nanoparticle:oligodeoxynucleotides ratio 5:1, the fluorescenceis weakest at the level of the basal membrane of the cells as in theapical membrane exposed to the culture medium containing theoligodeoxynucleotides-FITC. For both types of chitosan at the chitosannanoparticles:oligodeoxynucleotides ratio (5:1), the fluorescence isprimarily localized in the intracellular fraction. These curves confirmthat the antisense oligodeoxynucleotides penetrate into the cells. Theintensity of fluorescence in the interior of the cells is greater whenthe oligodeoxynucleotide-FITC is vectorized by chitosan 5 kDananoparticles. The cellular localization of the fluorescence is the samefor the (10:1) and (20:1) chitosan nanoparticles:oligodeoxynucleotidesratios as for the (5:1) ratio for both types of chitosan nanoparticles.

EXAMPLE X Inhibition of Tumor Growth after Intratumoral Administrationof Chitosan Nanoparticles to Nude Mice who had Developed theSubcutaneous Form of Ewing's Sarcoma

1. Materials and Methods

Thirty-five female nude mice aged 6-8 weeks were irradiated at 5 gray.Twenty-four hours after the irradiation, the mice received via thesubcutaneous route in the right flank 200 μl of a suspension of NIH 3T3EWS-Fli cells at 5·10⁶ cells/ml in PBS. The animals developed tumors atthe end of 14-21 days. Four groups of 7 animals were constituted (PBSgroup, oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS group, chitosan 5 kDananoparticles-oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS group and chitosan 5 kDananoparticles-oligodeoxynucleotide control group. The groups wererandomized and the treatment was begun when the tumor reached 2 mm³. Thetreatment consisted of 5 intratumoral administrations of the products attwo-day intervals. The efficacy of the treatments was evaluated bymeasuring the tumor growth of the treated animals in relation to thecontrols. The tumor growth was evaluated by the tumor volume (TV). TVwas calculated as follows: TV(mm³)=a²×b/2 in which a and b representrespectively the smallest and the largest diameter of the tumor. Thestatistical analysis of the results was performed with the StatView®computer program (Abacus Concepts, Berkeley, USA).

2. Results

The results of inhibition of tumor growth (FIG. 15) show an inhibitionof the growth when the animals were treated with oligodeoxynucleotideEF3008AS and the chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles oligodeoxynucleotideEF3008AS. However, the inhibition of growth was greater when the animalswere treated with the chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles oligodeoxynucleotideEF3008AS compared to the animals who received oligodeoxynucleotideEF3008AS. The control animals which received PBS or control chitosan 5kDa nanoparticles oligodeoxy-nucleotides exhibited only a slightinhibition of tumor growth.

EXAMPLE XI Inhibition of Tumor Growth after Intravenous Administrationof the Treatment to Mice which had Developed the Subcutaneous Form ofEwing's Sarcoma

1. Materials and Methods

Thirty-six female nude mice aged 6-8 weeks were irradiated at 5 gray.Twenty-four hours after the irradiation, the mice received by thesubcutaneous route in the right flank 200 μl of a suspension of EWS-Fli1cells at 5·10⁶ cells/ml in PBS. The animals developed tumors at the endof 10-20 days. Six groups of 6 animals were constituted: chitosan 5 kDananoparticle oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS group (ON AS/NP),oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS (ON AS), control oligodeoxynucleotide (ONCON), chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticle oligodeoxynucleotide control group (ONCON/NP), chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles (NP) and NaCl at 0.9% (NaCl). Thegroups were randomized and the treatment was begun when the tumorreached 10-40 mm³. The treatment consisted of 5 intravenousadministrations of the products at intervals of 2 or 3 days. Theefficacy of the treatments was evaluated at the end of 15 days by themeans of the ratios between the measurements of the tumor volume on day14 and the measurements of the tumor volume on day 1 of the groups oftreated animals in relation to the control groups. The tumor volume wascalculated as in example X.

2. Results

The tumor growth results (FIG. 16) show an inhibition of the growth whenthe animals were treated with oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS (ON ASgroup) and the chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles oligodeoxynucleotidesEF3008AS (ON AS/NP group). However, there was greater inhibition of thetumor growth when the animals were treated with chitosan 5 kDananoparticles oligodeoxynucleotides EF3008AS (ON AS/NP group) comparedto the animals who received the oligodeoxynucleotide EF3008AS withoutchitosan nanoparticles (ON AS group). The animals in the control groupswhich received NaCl, chitosan nanoparticles alone (NP group) or thecontrol oligodeoxynucleotide with or without chitosan nanoparticles (ONCON/NP and ON CON groups respectively) exhibited only a slightinhibition of the tumor growth.

EXAMPLE XII Inhibition of the Expression of the Protein GFP andInhibition of the Expression of the mRNA of the Protein GFP in Vivo bysiRNA Vectorized by the Nanoparticles

1. Materials and Methods

Adherent HeLa cells transfected with GFP (HeLa-GFP) in monolayer culturewere collected when they reached 70% confluence and put back insuspension in PBS at the rate of 1·10⁷ cells/ml. The cells were thenadministered via the subcutaneous route in the right flank of nude miceat the rate of 2·10⁶ cells/mouse. Seven days after inoculation of thecells, the animals were distributed in different groups and treated bythe intratumoral administration of different preparations in thefollowing manner:

Group 1 (100 μl of a preparation containing 10 μg of double strand GFPoligonucleotide target of siRNA), Group 2 (100 μl of control siRNAalone), Group 3 (100 μl of control siRNA vectorized with 10 μg ofchitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles), Group 4 (100 μl of antisense GFPoligonucleotide alone), Group 5 (100 μl of GFP antisense oligonucleotidevectorized by chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles). Twenty-four hours after thetreatment, the tumors were collected and divided into two parts. Thepart intended for histological study was immersed in a solution ofGlyoFixx (Shandon) and the part to be used for the Northern blot testwas stored in liquid nitrogen.

a. Detection of the Expression of GFP in the Tumor by theImmunohistochemistry Technique

The tumor fragments were poured into paraffin and labeled with ahematein-eosin-safranin solution. GFP was detected on a 4-μm section byan anti-GFP antibody (Clontech) (1:30) and monitored by the Power VisionHistostaining kit (ImmunoVision Technology, CA) after counter-labeling;the samples were observed with a microscope (Zeiss) associated with aCDD Camera Imaging System (Sony).

b. Detection of the Expression of the mRNA of GFP in the Tumor by theNorthern Blot Technique

The tumor fragments were ground in a solution containing 400 μl ofguanidium thiocyanate 4M, 25 mM of N citrate (pH 7), 0.5% of sarcosyland 0.1M of β-mercaptoethanol at 0° C. After homogenization, the RNA wasextracted in phenol as follows: 40 μl of solution of Na acetate 2M (pH4) was added to 400 μl of H₂O saturated with phenol and 120 μl ofchloroform:isoamyl alcohol (49:1). The mixture was centrifuged at 1300rpm for 15 minutes. Then 300 μl of the aqueous phase was precipitatedwith 300 μl of isopropanol at −20° C. The residue obtained in thismanner was washed with ethanol 70%. After drying the residue was takenup with 10 μl of distilled water. Electrophoresis of 2 μg of total RNAwas performed on agar gel 1% in MOPS buffer containing 6.3% offormaline. The RNA was transferred onto a nitrocellulose membrane(BA-S85, Schleicher & Shuell) in an SSC buffer (10×). The mRNA of GFPwas detected by the Northern blot technique with a fragment of cDNA ofGFP of 770 pb labeled by α³²-P dCTP 300 ci/mM (ICN, France) andPrime-a-gene labeling system (Promega). After washing, thenitrocellulose membrane was analyzed by the Storm 840 phosphorimager(Molecular Dynamic).

2. Results

Inhibition of the synthesis of GFP was seen solely when the siRNA wasvectorized with chitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles as shown in FIG. 17D. Therewas no evidence of inhibition of GFP in any of the other cases (FIGS. 17A, B, C and E). The antisense activity of siRNA vectorized by thechitosan 5 kDa nanoparticles was confirmed by the Northern blottechnique. There can be seen an inhibition of the synthesis of mRNA ofGFP of 50% at the end of 24 h when the siRNA was vectorized by thenanoparticles (FIG. 18). These results demonstrate that siRNA vectorizedby the nanoparticles interferes with the gene of expression of GFP invivo.

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1. A vectorization and delivery system of therapeutic or diagnosticsubstances comprising (i) at least one polymer and (ii) at least onenontoxic positively charged polysaccharide, the nanoparticles having asubstantially homogeneous distribution of size.
 2. The system accordingto claim 1, wherein the substances are incorporated or adsorbed at thelevel of the nanoparticles.
 3. The system according to claim 1, whereinthe substances of interest are anionic or comprise an anionic region. 4.The system according to claim 1, wherein the polymer is a poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) in which linear or branched alkyl group comprise from 1to 12 carbon atoms.
 5. The system according to claim 1, wherein thepositively charged polysaccharide is chitosan or one of its derivatives.6. The system according to claim 1, wherein the positively chargedpolysaccharide has a molecular mass smaller than about 100,000 Da. 7.The system according to claim 1, further comprising at least onecompound capable of complexing the substances of interest.
 8. The systemaccording to claim 7, wherein the compound capable of complexing thesubstances of interest is a cyclic oligosaccharide.
 9. The systemaccording to claim 1, wherein the substances of interest are selectedfrom among the group consisting of DNA, oligodeoxyribonucleotides,antisense substances, interfering RNAs (siRNA), peptides, polypeptides,proteins and chemical compounds.
 10. The system according to claim 1,wherein the nanoparticles have a homogeneous diameter between about 10and about 300 nm.
 11. A method for preparing nanoparticles according toclaim 1, comprising polymerization at an acid pH higher than 1 ofmonomers in the presence of the positively charged polysaccharide toobtain a suspension of nanoparticles.
 12. The method according to claim11, wherein the polysaccharide is added at the beginning ofpolymerization.
 13. The method according to claim 11, wherein the acidpH is higher than
 3. 14. The method according to claim 11, whereinpolymerization is performed in the presence of a polymerization retardercompound which fixes OH groups of the aqueous polymerization medium orthe polysaccharide.
 15. The method according to claim 11, wherein theamount of polysaccharide is between about 0.01 and about 5% and inrelation to the weight of the suspension.
 16. The method according toclaim 11, comprising addition of polyisohexylcyanoacrylate containingSO₂ in a solution of citric acid at a pH between 1 and 5 and containinga nonionic surface-active agent, optionally cyclodextrin and chitosanhaving a molecular weight of 5000-10,000 Da.
 17. The method according toclaim 11, comprising addition of the substances of interest atsubstantially the same time as the polysaccharide.
 18. The methodaccording to claim 11, comprising addition of the substances of interestafter formation of the nanoparticles.
 19. A suspension of nanoparticlesobtained by the method according to claim 11, comprising from about 0.01to about 5%, of positively charged polysaccharide in relation to theweight of the suspension.
 20. The suspension according to claim 19,comprising from about 0.5 to about 50% of substances of interest inrelation to the weight of the suspension.